"孽海花" by Zeng Pu is a novel first published in serial installments beginning in 1904. This roman à clef follows Jin Wenqing, a high official whose broken marriage promise leads to tragedy and sets in motion a pattern of Buddhist-style retributions. His concubine Fu Caiyun—mysteriously connected to his past—travels to Europe, gains favor with royal families, and befriends Russian nihilists while Jin fails as a diplomat. The unfinished work portrays China's upper class during the final decades of the nineteenth century, indirectly criticizing the Qing dynasty while promoting democratic values.